US Critical Mineral Reliance: Top 10 Critical Minerals the U.S. Imports

What happens when global supply chains fracture around materials no one thinks about—until it’s too late?

That’s the growing risk facing the United States, where entire industries—from EVs to semiconductors to missile systems—depend on minerals the country doesn’t even mine or refine. According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), over a dozen of these minerals see import dependencies above 75%, many at 100%, often from geopolitically sensitive or ESG-risk-prone regions.

And the real chokepoint? Refining capacity—which is overwhelmingly dominated by China, even when mining is more geographically distributed. That means a single country can cut off access to entire industrial sectors, creating dangerous bottlenecks in clean energy, national defense, and tech manufacturing.

In this listicle, we break down 10 critical minerals where the U.S. is highly dependent on foreign supply.

The U.S. is 100% import-dependent on graphite, a non-metallic mineral critical for electric vehicle (EV) battery anodes, refractories, lubricants, and fuel cells. Graphite's role in the clean energy transition is especially acute, as every EV battery requires up to 50 kg of graphite.

While Africa has emerged as a mining hub—with Mozambique and Madagascar increasing output—China remains the ultimate gatekeeper, refining over 90% of the world’s battery-grade graphite. In 2023, Beijing imposed export restrictions on key graphite grades, raising alarms in Washington. The U.S. currently has no commercial-scale graphite refining capability, creating a single-source dependency on China for this foundational battery material.

Gallium is a soft, silvery metal used in semiconductors, solar panels, 5G components, and military radar. It doesn’t occur freely in nature but is extracted as a byproduct of bauxite and zinc refining. The U.S. is completely dependent on imports, with China producing over 95% of global primary gallium.

In mid-2023, China implemented export licensing restrictions on gallium, framing it as a national security asset. With no domestic refining or stockpile and rising demand from advanced defense electronics and green tech, gallium represents a critical vulnerability in America’s high-tech supply chains.

Rare Earth Elements (REEs), especially the heavy ones like dysprosium and terbium, are essential for EV motors, wind turbines, guided missiles, and aerospace alloys. The U.S. imports over 80% of its rare earths and 100% of heavy REEs, with China dominating both mining and processing. Even when mined in Australia or the U.S., rare earth ores are typically sent to China for separation and oxide production. This refining monopoly—controlling 85–90% of global capacity—has been wielded as geopolitical leverage before, and remains one of the most pressing chokepoints in U.S. supply chains.

Cobalt is indispensable for lithium-ion batteries, aerospace alloys, and superalloys in jet engines. The U.S. imports nearly 76% of its cobalt, with the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) supplying more than 70% of global mined cobalt. ESG concerns dominate here: artisanal mining, child labor, and violent conflict are widespread in the DRC. But the bigger bottleneck is in refining—China controls about 75% of cobalt processing capacity worldwide, including ownership of key DRC mines like Tenke Fungurume and Kisanfu. The U.S. has no domestic refining facilities, leaving it exposed on both the ethical and geopolitical fronts.

Cobalt is indispensable for lithium-ion batteries, aerospace alloys, and superalloys in jet engines. The U.S. imports nearly 76% of its cobalt, with the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) supplying more than 70% of global mined cobalt. ESG concerns dominate here: artisanal mining, child labor, and violent conflict are widespread in the DRC. But the bigger bottleneck is in refining—China controls about 75% of cobalt processing capacity worldwide, including ownership of key DRC mines like Tenke Fungurume and Kisanfu. The U.S. has no domestic refining facilities, leaving it exposed on both the ethical and geopolitical fronts.

Fluorspar is a key input in aluminum production, steelmaking, and the manufacture of hydrofluoric acid—a precursor to refrigerants, Teflon, and semiconductor etching gases. The U.S. imports 100% of its fluorspar, primarily from Mexico and Vietnam. China is the largest miner and processor, dominating global acid-grade fluorspar refining. This makes it essential not just for heavy industry but also the advanced manufacturing of chips and EVs. With environmental restrictions tightening in China and limited global refining capacity elsewhere, the U.S. faces a dual risk of supply shocks and price volatility.

Tantalum is indispensable in the miniaturization of electronics—used in capacitors for smartphones, EVs, and military communication systems. The U.S. is 100% reliant on foreign tantalum, primarily sourced from Central Africa. Rwanda and the DRC dominate mining, but concerns over conflict minerals and smuggling have long plagued the supply chain. Refining is tightly held by a few players in China, Estonia, and Kazakhstan, limiting transparency. With rising defense and chip sector demand, and growing scrutiny of conflict mineral origins, tantalum is a strategic risk hiding in plain sight.

Niobium strengthens steel and alloys for jet engines, pipelines, and MRI machines. The U.S. imports nearly 100% of its niobium—almost entirely from Brazil, which is home to over 85% of the world’s niobium reserves, dominated by a single firm: CBMM. While the ESG footprint of Brazilian niobium is relatively cleaner, the monopoly-style concentration creates serious supply risk. China has tried to acquire niobium assets globally and is building refining capabilities, but for now, the U.S. depends entirely on a single foreign source with minimal redundancy or substitution.

Bismuth is used in pharmaceuticals, fire detection systems, and as a lead substitute in metal alloys. The U.S. is 100% reliant on imports, with China producing over 80% of the world’s supply and controlling refining. While bismuth has fewer defense-critical applications, its substitution for toxic lead in plumbing and solder makes it increasingly valuable. If China cuts off bismuth exports, American manufacturers face sourcing constraints with few viable alternatives—especially as domestic production has completely collapsed in recent decades.

Antimony is a metalloid critical for flame retardants, ammunition, and semiconductors. The U.S. is 100% import-dependent, primarily sourcing from China and Tajikistan. China dominates global antimony mining and refining, accounting for over 75% of processed output. Antimony trioxide is essential in microelectronics and military-grade alloys. During past geopolitical tensions, China has used antimony exports as a pressure tactic. The closure of U.S. mines decades ago and failed domestic revival projects mean the U.S. remains highly exposed to disruption in this niche but strategic supply chain.

For all the talk of energy transition, semiconductor independence, and defense readiness, the U.S. remains alarmingly dependent on foreign critical minerals—often 100%. The vulnerability isn’t just in the ground—it’s in who refines what. From gallium and graphite to rare earths and cobalt, China controls the refining chokepoint, while ESG concerns dominate mining in regions like the DRC and Myanmar.

America’s industrial future—EVs, AI chips, fighter jets—rests on a supply chain it doesn’t control. Fixing that means rethinking trade policy, rebuilding refining capacity, and securing reliable partners.

The U.S. has limited domestic mining and virtually no processing capacity for many critical minerals due to environmental regulations, past industry decline, and globalized supply chains. As a result, it relies heavily on imports—often from geopolitically sensitive or ESG-risk-prone countries—for materials essential to clean energy, defense, and tech manufacturing.

China is the undisputed leader in refining and processing, controlling the majority of global capacity for rare earths, graphite, gallium, cobalt, and more. Even when mining occurs in other countries, ores are often shipped to China for processing—creating a chokepoint in the supply chain and a significant strategic risk for the U.S.

A disruption in supply—whether due to geopolitical conflict, export restrictions, or ESG concerns—can halt production across vital industries, from EVs and wind turbines to semiconductors and missile systems. This dependency threatens national security, weakens energy resilience, and reduces America's manufacturing competitiveness.

The U.S. is investing in domestic mining, refining, and recycling through initiatives like the Defense Production Act, strategic stockpile purchases, and direct collaboration with key players such as MP Materials, in which the federal government holds a stake. However, building out processing infrastructure takes years, and near-term vulnerabilities persist. The U.S. is also pursuing partnerships with allies like Australia and Canada to diversify and de-risk supply chains.